No 3 (2025)
Articles
Military-technical cooperation between Russia and Cameroon: Main features and prospects (2012-2024).
Abstract
African nations are actively reshaping their role in international relations and holds a significant position in a world that is becoming less focused on the West. This has led to a surge in interest in the region from major global players. Recognizing this, Russian leaders have made strengthening ties with African countries a key strategic goal of their foreign policy. Russia-Africa cooperation is primarily focused on military-technical collaboration, which has been expanding quickly in Sub-Saharan Africa recently. This article elaborates the main features and prospect of the military-technical relations between Russia and Cameroon in the period 2012 and 2024. The year 2012 is characterized by the establishment of a permanent military mission at the Cameroonian embassy in Moscow, while the year 2024 marks the celebration of the 60th anniversary of diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union (Now Russian Federation) and Cameroon which were established on February 20, 1964. Cameroon’s military-technical cooperation with Russia is driven by mutual interests: Yaounde seeks reliable security assistance, while Moscow aims to expand its geopolitical footprint in Africa. It is noted that despite the low economic exchange between Russia and African countries, the military technical cooperation with Russia is the most significant. This is because without ensuring the security aspects of a country, we cannot talk of political, economic, social, and industrial development. The recommendations suggest that, it would be strategically valuable for Russia to establish weapons factories in reliable partner countries, such as Cameroon and the Sahel nations. This will promote self-reliance in the military sphere. This aspect of independence is increasingly prioritized in African foreign policy discussions of the 21st century. Ultimately, Cameroon-Russia military-technical cooperation exemplifies how African nations are navigating a multipolar world, leveraging new partnerships to address security challenges while managing complex international pressures.
International relations. 2025;(3):1-11
1-11
Vietnam's Maritime Economic Cooperation with ASEAN Countries (1995-2024)
Abstract
This study examines the process of formation, development, and outcomes of maritime economic cooperation between Vietnam and the member countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) from 1995 to 2024. The focus of this research is the cooperation in the maritime economy between the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and ASEAN member states during the period from 1995 to 2024. The subject of the study includes key directions, mechanisms, forms, and outcomes of maritime economic cooperation between Vietnam and ASEAN countries, as well as the institutional and legal aspects of interaction within bilateral and multilateral formats during the specified period. The aim of the work is to evaluate the effectiveness of cooperation, identify key challenges, and analyze the role of Vietnam in promoting regional maritime initiatives. The research is based on the liberal theory of international relations, which emphasizes the importance of international institutions and norms in facilitating cooperation. The methodology includes analyzing ASEAN documents, specialized UN agencies, Vietnamese authorities, comparing statistical, regulatory, and political data, as well as studying interaction models. The novelty of the work lies in a comprehensive assessment of maritime economic cooperation between Vietnam and ASEAN over almost three decades, with a focus on contemporary trends in "blue" economy in the post-pandemic period. Special attention is given to Vietnam's initiatives: the development of the Cai Mep-Thi Vai deep-water port, combating illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, and restoring marine ecosystems, including coral reefs, mangrove forests, and coastal ecosystems with high biological value. The results obtained confirm Vietnam's significant contribution to enhancing the region's competitiveness in global logistics chains and strengthening its role in ASEAN maritime projects. At the same time, challenges remain related to policy inconsistencies, limited financial and technological resources, and threats to non-traditional maritime security. In this regard, it is proposed to strengthen institutional coordination, expand the participation of the private sector, and activate Vietnam's role in promoting initiatives for creating a sustainable and secure maritime space.
International relations. 2025;(3):12-24
12-24
The attitude of Latin American countries to the idea of a multipolar world
Abstract
The subject of study is the position of Latin American countries to the idea of multipolar world. The purpose of the article is to highlight the key aspects in the understanding of the idea of multipolar world by Latin American states. The objectives are to consider the specifics of the attitude of Latin American countries to the idea of multipolar world, identify the factors influencing this attitude, and identify groups of Latin American countries depending on their official positions on the issue of a new format of the world order. There are general scientific methods in the work including analytical, historical, generalization method, grouping method, etc. The information base of the study was made up of the works of Russian and foreign researchers on the issues of the multipolar world as a model of the emerging new world order. The regulatory documentation of ministries and departments of Latin American countries was also used. As a result, three groups of Latin American countries were identified depending on their attitude to the new format of the world order: openly advocating multipolar world (Brazil, Bolivia, Nicaragua, Cuba, Venezuela, Mexico); countries heavily dependent on the United States and supporting it in geopolitical issues (Chile, Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador); neutral and more cautious in the rhetoric about multipolarity countries (most countries of the Caribbean and Honduras, Guyana, Panama, Peru, Uruguay, Paraguay, Suriname). The conclusions are the understanding of Latin American countries of their place in the multipolar world is through the prism of regional integration, through the functioning of integration associations, in particular the largest of them - the Common Market of the Southern Cone (MERCOSUR), the Pacific Alliance (PA) and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC). Brazil and Mexico can be considered as the center of Latin American pole of the polycentric world.
International relations. 2025;(3):25-39
25-39
The Geostrategic Rivalry between the U.S. and China in the Mekong Subregion (2009–2024)
Abstract
The article analyzes the evolution of geostrategic rivalry between the United States and China in the Mekong subregion from 2009 to 2024. The relevance of the topic is driven by the intensifying competition between the U.S. and China for influence in mainland Southeast Asia, where the Mekong subregion has emerged as a key arena of strategic confrontation with far-reaching geopolitical and economic implications. The object of the study is the geostrategic rivalry between the United States and China in the Mekong subregion. The subject of the study comprises the strategic objectives, instruments, and approaches employed by both powers in their geostrategic competition in the Mekong region during the period from 2009 to 2024. The aim of the study is to identify the differences in strategic goals, tools, and approaches of the two powers and to assess how these differences influence the transformation of the regional architecture of international relations. The methodological foundation of the research is grounded in the neorealist theory of international relations and employs methods such as content analysis, case studies, genetic history, and comparative historical analysis. The findings indicate that China pursues regional hegemony through the Belt and Road Initiative, the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation mechanism, and control over water resources, whereas the United States emphasizes soft containment, managerial support, and institutional partnership via the Lower Mekong Initiative and the Mekong-U.S. Partnership (MUSP). The scientific novelty of the study lies in its comprehensive comparative analysis of U.S. and Chinese strategies in the Mekong subregion within the neorealist paradigm, with a specific focus on institutional mechanisms of influence and the transformation of the regional balance of power. This work contributes to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms through which great powers exert influence amid a shifting balance of power in mainland Southeast Asia. It may also prove useful in formulating foreign policy strategies for small and medium-sized states in the region under conditions of external pressure.
International relations. 2025;(3):40-58
40-58
Between Cooperation and Competition: Trade and Economic Relations between the PRC and the FRG
Abstract
The present article is dedicated to the study of trade and economic relations between the People's Republic of China and the Federal Republic of Germany, which play a key role both in bilateral and global contexts. Cooperation between these two countries has developed over the past few decades amid deepening globalization and intensifying competition among world powers. China, as the largest economy in the world, is interested in access to technology, investments, and the European market, while Germany, as a leading power in the European Union, sees China as a key partner for exports, investments, and the development of high-tech industries. The article analyzes the key stages in the development of Sino-German relations, the legal framework for interaction, the dynamics of trade and investment cooperation, as well as the emerging contradictions associated with political and economic challenges. The study employs historical and comparative analysis, systemic and structural-functional approaches, allowing for the identification of features and trends in the evolution of bilateral cooperation. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the comprehensive examination of the trade and economic links between the PRC and the FRG in the context of global transformations, including the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, changes in international trade strategies, and the increasing influence of political factors in economic relations. The article shows that cooperation between China and Germany is mutually beneficial and pragmatic, yet accompanied by contradictions related to supply dependency, the protection of strategic industries, and the influence of external actors, including the United States and EU institutions. It concludes that Sino-German relations represent an important element in the formation of a multipolar world while reflecting the complexity of balancing economic interests with political principles. In the long run, the sustainability and development of this cooperation will depend on the ability of both parties to adapt to the challenges of the international environment and to develop mechanisms for long-term partnership.
International relations. 2025;(3):59-75
59-75
From the League of Nations to the UN: The Evolution of Conflict Resolution Mechanisms by International Organizations
Abstract
The object of the research is the activities of the League of Nations and the UN in maintaining peace and security. The subject is the evolution of conflict resolution mechanisms through the example of the veto power. The relevance of the issues concerning the participation of universal international organizations in regulating interstate relations in the military-political sphere is noted in the work. A historical description of the process of the formation of the League of Nations and the UN is provided. Emphasis is placed on various projects for a global organization that existed before the emergence of the League of Nations, as well as specific aspects of discussions that occurred during the development of the UN Charter. A comparative analysis of the features of the creation and functioning of the two organizations is conducted. The historical experience of the League of Nations and its influence on the organization of work in the UN, particularly regarding the creation of the veto power mechanism, is analyzed. The methodological basis of the work includes the use of traditional and modern methods employed in historical research: general logical methods (including analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, comparison, juxtaposition, generalization), and the method of critical analysis of documents. The article also employs an integrative approach that combines problem-chronological, structural-functional methods, as well as case studies and content analysis. A comprehensive comparative analysis of the mechanisms of the League of Nations and the UN for resolving international crises has been carried out. In both cases, at the conceptual level, there is an attempt to approach the liberal ideal of "peace in the world" by creating a universal supranational body. However, both organizations differ significantly in their effectiveness. The future of the UN universal project depends on its ability to adapt institutions such as permanent membership in the Security Council and the veto power to current processes in the formation of a multipolar world. An author’s assessment of the prospects for reforming the UN Security Council, taking into account the lessons of the League of Nations and current expert discussions, is formulated. The materials and conclusions of this work can be used in developing positions on international security issues, as well as in further research on the UN, in the development and writing of educational programs and teaching aids on international relations.
International relations. 2025;(3):76-85
76-85
The evolution and current state of educational cooperation between Kazakhstan and China in the context of strategic partnership
Abstract
The article is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of the development of relations between the Republic of Kazakhstan and the People's Republic of China in political, economic, and humanitarian spheres. Special attention is paid to the formation of the regulatory and legal framework for educational cooperation and its role in strengthening the strategic partnership between the two countries. The work examines key stages of diplomatic relations, the expansion of economic interaction, Kazakhstan's participation in China's initiatives, as well as the dynamics of cultural and educational exchange. The processes of institutionalizing cooperation in the field of education are studied in detail, including the establishment of Confucius Institutes, mutual student exchanges, and the mutual recognition of educational documents. The article's issues lie in identifying contradictions in bilateral relations: from trade imbalance and dependence on Chinese investments to environmental challenges and public concerns regarding China's influence on Kazakhstan. The research employs comparative-historical and institutional approaches, as well as the analysis of the regulatory and legal framework and statistical data, which allows for the identification of development patterns and the assessment of cooperation prospects. The scientific novelty of the work lies in the comprehensive examination of educational cooperation between Kazakhstan and China as a crucial element of strategic partnership, complementing economic and political aspects of interaction. It is established that the humanitarian and educational components serve as a tool for building trust between the countries and forming the human resource potential necessary for the implementation of long-term joint projects. At the same time, risks associated with trade imbalances, migration processes, environmental issues, and potential credit dependency on China have been identified. It is concluded that the further development of bilateral relations requires maintaining a balance of interests, increasing transparency in cooperation, and focusing on mutually beneficial outcomes. Educational diplomacy is of particular importance, as it contributes to the formation of a new generation of specialists and strengthens the foundations of sustainable strategic partnership.
International relations. 2025;(3):86-102
86-102
Balancing Act: Nigeria's economic and political calculations with China amid global changes
Abstract
The subject of the study is Nigerian-Chinese relations in the broader context of the international political economy. It examines trade, foreign direct investment, infrastructure financing and political diplomacy between the two countries, and highlights how these relations are consistent with Nigeria's national interests and global pressures. The authors explore how Nigeria copes with difficult balancing and what consequences this has for its economy, sovereignty and international standing, as well as for further study of the following tasks, as key historical milestones and driving forces of the strategic partnership between Nigeria and China; the history of partnership development in the context of changing geopolitical realities, in particular: in light of the rise of China and the growing competition between the United States and China, as well as the perceived benefits and challenges for Nigeria in maintaining this strategic partnership. This paper uses a qualitative method, using case studies of important sectors affected by Chinese involvement in Nigeria, including infrastructure and energy. It combines policy analysis, trade statistics and diplomatic reports. In addition, a comparative analysis is being conducted to assess how Nigeria's strategy is consistent with that of other African countries cooperating with China. The novelty of the study lies in the fact that for the first time it explores the global transformation of cooperation between countries: the change in U.S. and European policy towards Africa, its impact on Nigeria's relations with China. It also highlights for the first time the impact of new trends, compromises and the emergence of multipolarity in bilateral relations. This study contributes to the existing literature on foreign policy analysis and international relations by identifying patterns in Nigeria's approach that could serve as a model for other African countries facing similar geopolitical challenges. The results of the study showed that Nigeria is building relations with China in the context of global geopolitical changes, facing both opportunities and challenges. By adopting a strategic approach that takes into account all the nuances, Nigeria can take advantage of its relationship with China, while maintaining its sovereignty and contributing to sustainable development.
International relations. 2025;(3):103-117
103-117
The Role of China in Shaping Global Climate Governance Mechanisms: Evolution of Diplomatic Strategies
Abstract
The subject of this study is an institutionally oriented analysis of the evolution of the climate diplomacy of the People’s Republic of China in the context of the transformation of global climate governance and contemporary international relations. The object of the study is the climate policy of China as a strategic component of its foreign policy and a tool for enhancing international influence. The aim of the research is to identify the specific mechanisms employed by China to adapt to global environmental challenges and the strategies it uses to shape a new architecture of global climate governance. The study examines the stages of China’s transition from limited participation in climate negotiations to institutional leadership. It analyzes China's foreign policy approaches, including the promotion of the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, engagement in multilateral frameworks, and the development of partnerships with Global South countries amid intensifying geopolitical competition. The methodological framework combines institutional and comparative-historical approaches along with qualitative analysis of UN regulatory documents, international agreements, China’s official policy acts, and relevant expert sources. The scientific novelty of the study lies in its comprehensive assessment of the institutional evolution of China’s climate diplomacy as an independent direction of foreign policy in the 21st century. For the first time, key stages of the development of China’s diplomatic practice are systematized, mechanisms for shaping negotiation strategies, adapting to international norms, building coalitions, and promoting climate initiatives are analyzed in detail. The study demonstrates how China has shifted from a passive participant to an active norm-shaping actor and one of the leading architects of the international climate system. The findings contribute to a better understanding of China's growing role in shaping a fair, balanced, and multilateral model of global climate governance, where national interests are effectively integrated with global responsibilities.
International relations. 2025;(3):118-133
118-133