Monkeypox outbreaks: a comprehensive review of epidemiology, clinical management, and public health responses

Monkeypox, caused by a zoonotic virus, and has emerged as a significant public health issue, particularly with recent outbreaks extending beyond its traditional endemic areas in Central and West Africa. This virus, which belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus, is closely related to the variola virus that causes smallpox. The resurgence of monkeypox underscores the urgent need to understand its epidemiology, clinical management, and public health responses, especially given the global spread observed in 2022. Monkeypox primarily transmits from animals to humans, with rodents and monkeys acting as the primary reservoirs. Secondary human-to-human transmission occurs through respiratory droplets or contact with contaminated materials. Clinically, monkeypox manifests with symptoms similar to smallpox, such as fever, rash, and lymphadenopathy, although it is generally less severe. Supportive treatments, including antivirals like tecovirimat, have shown efficacy in alleviating symptoms and reducing disease severity. Additionally, the development of new antiviral agents and treatment protocols remains an area of active research. Vaccination plays a crucial role in managing monkeypox outbreaks. The smallpox vaccine, which provides cross-protection against monkeypox, has been instrumental in controlling the spread of the disease. Public health strategies have emphasized targeted vaccination campaigns, thorough contact tracing, and comprehensive surveillance efforts. These measures highlight the necessity of rapid and coordinated actions to manage and prevent outbreaks effectively. Addressing the global burden of monkeypox requires strengthening healthcare infrastructure, enhancing disease surveillance systems, and fostering international collaboration. Efforts to improve diagnostics, vaccine distribution, and public health education are also vital. By focusing on these areas, the global community can improve its capacity to manage and mitigate the impact of this re-emerging infectious disease. Effective response strategies are essential for controlling current outbreaks and preventing future ones, ultimately reducing the global impact of monkeypox and improving public health outcomes.