Diplomatic Sanctions in the System of Multilateral and Bilateral Relations between Russia and Europe (2014–2024)

The article explores the phenomenon of diplomatic sanctions in relations between Russian and European nations after 2014. The author argues that “diplomatic sanctions” as new type of repression has been formed during this period, which are understood as coordinated expulsions of diplomats, closure of consular missions, lowering the level of diplomatic relations, seizure of diplomatic property and freezing of accounts of Russian embassies, refusal of high-level and top-level contacts. Moreover, their nature differs significantly in bilateral and multilateral relations (international organisations are more prone to them than individual states). Using a systematic approach to the study of international relations, the author argues that diplomatic restrictions against Moscow were applied both by individual countries and European international organisations (Council of Europe, NATO, European Union and, to a lesser extent, the OSCE). It is highlighted that European countries introduced large-scale diplomatic sanctions against Moscow after 2022, having previously limited themselves to targeted restrictions and expulsions of diplomatic staff. Meanwhile this instrument has been used against Russia at the multilateral level since 2014, and within the Council of Europe since the early 2000s. Moreover, within the framework of international organizations, the mentioned instruments were used to infringe on Russian rights; in contrast, bilateral diplomatic sanctions are more variable and affect all areas of diplomatic missions’ functioning. It is concluded that lifting diplomatic sanctions should be considered as the first stage of the eventual normalization of Russian-European relations in the event of a long-term settlement of the Ukrainian crises, as demonstrated by the Russian-US dialogue following the election of D. Trump.