Latinskaya Amerika

The article presents an analysis of the evolution of the Venezuelan oil industry from the late 19th century to the present day. Key stages are traced: the first wells (1878), the dominance of foreign companies (Shell, Standard Oil), nationalization (1976), and the creation of PDVSA. The role of oil as the backbone of the economy (95% of exports) and its vulnerability to external shocks are emphasized. In the 21st century, Venezuela, possessing the largest reserves of heavy oil, faced a crisis: US sanctions, a drop in production below 0.5 million barrels per day, and deteriorating infrastructure. Russian-Venezuelan cooperation is considered: the Junin-6 and Carabobo-2 projects and the activities of the National Oil Consortium. Particular attention is paid to the concept of digital sovereignty, including the implementation of the open ZIIoT O&G platform to reduce dependence on Western technologies. The industry's prospects are linked to political stability, investment in modernization, and the diversification of partnerships. The author emphasizes the need for a balance between national control and integration into global energy chains.

Scope. This study aims to identify the characteristics of Paraguay-Russia relations amid the increasingly complicated international political environment after 2022.

Methods. The study relies on a systemic approach and structural analysis of bilateral relations. Trade statistics are also used, new historical facts of bilateral interaction are interpreted, and the discourse of politicians and diplomats is examined.

Results. The authors characterize Paraguay-Russia ties in the political, diplomatic, trade, and economic spheres, as well as the specifics of its cultural and educational interaction, paying particular attention to how these interactions were influenced by Russia's special military operation and the subsequent deterioration of its relations with Western countries. They also highlight both problematic trends in the Paraguayan-Russian dialogue and certain "windows of opportunity" for its development.

Conclusions. The authors find that, although Paraguay was one of Russia's important partners in Latin America in the past decade, relations with this South American nation have reached a lower point in 2022-2025. The geopolitical crisis in Ukraine has reduced opportunities for dialogue between the leaders, ministers, and diplomats of the two countries. Trade flows have declined, and the previously emerging trend of diversifying and complicating economic cooperation has stalled. Since 2022, the negative impact of traditional inhibitors on Paraguayan-Russian relations, such as the Paraguayan leadership's political and ideological orientation toward the United States, has intensified. At the same time, Russia's role as a global actor remains significant for Paraguay. Selective and pragmatic engagement in priority areas, focusing on humanitarian and educational exchanges, can support relations between the two countries in the nearest future.

The article analyzes the formation of federalism in Brazil at the end of the 19th century. The purpose of the study is to fill a methodological gap in the Russian literature by applying theoretical concepts of federalism, including the typology of Alfred Stepan to explain the reasons for decentralization and the distribution of power between the center and the regions. The research method is a case study (compliance analysis). The results show that federalism emerged as a tool for preserving territorial integrity after the fall of the monarchy, with the indirect influence of the regional uprisings of the 19th century. The compliance analysis confirms the holding-together federation model.

The article provides a conceptual analysis of the political discourse of Simon Bolivar, on the basis of which conclusions are drawn about the lack of independence of pain as an ideology. The concepts that make up Bolivar's political discourse are too general and obvious, which makes it possible to consider Bolivarianism only an ideological and legitimation discourse of an emancipation kind. The active use of the name Simon Bolivar in Venezuelan political discourse aims to create a metaphorical connection with the Liberator.